Perspectives Lecture [3] The Apple, Auschwitz & The Incredulous Frenchman'

Definitions

Metanarrative- Large-scale theories and 'truths' believed across the world (i.e. religion, history, science, and art). They are often seen as having "inherent purpose" or a goal of such, wherein there's a constant emphasis on 'direction' and inevitable 'development', which makes them 'teleological'.
Essentialism- The idea that people or things have an "innate" characteristic, that's unalterable,  as opposed to being/acting from a "social, ideological or intellectual" influence of the external world.
Essentialism believes these characteristics can be observed, and therefore allow people/things to be categorised accordingly.
Utopian- An idealistic state, or place, wherein everything is considered 'perfect'.
Meta-narratives are considered 'perfect', and existing beyond our own control, from a higher power of some sort.
Axiomatic- Something that is considered 'unquestionable', and an accepted 'truth'.
Dystopian- A state, or place, wherein everything is considered "unpleasant" or "bad". A dystopian society may be born from an originally intended, utopian society. A consequence of individuality and the more ambiguous reality of what's considered 'good' or 'bad'.
Scepticism- Doubtful, or dubious about the 'truth' of something.
Relativism- A theory that states there are no "absolute" truths... only the beliefs that a culture, or particular individual believe themselves to be correct. Relativism takes into account that moral beliefs differ across different cultures/"among people", and that this knowledge is 'relative' to the limited nature of the human mind, and the means of which we come to these conclusions.
Pluralism- A theory or form of society, wherein two or more groups of people (each with their own different ideas and beliefs), coexist within the same society. Pluralism considers the diversity of people in the same society as a positive thing.

'Mulholland Drive'

Fig. 1

Five ways 'Mullholland Dr.' is considered 'Post-modern':
1) Hyper-reality
Warped reality plays a dominant part of 'Mulholland Dr', with the theme of cinema and 'false realities' being a recurring theme (the main character a soon-to-be actress, and the easily changeable emotions from the 'acting reality' coming across into the 'Mulholland Dr.'s reality'). The start of the film see's a hyper-realist, pastiche of a cheesy, 'romantic comedy', as Betty Elms arrives to Hollywood Hill. An aspiring actress, she's enthusiastic and talented; nailing the interview, and confidently helping Diane to find her origins. 

Fig. 2

However, midway through there's a sudden change... wherein Betty becomes Diane, and the conflict comes, not from her lost memory, but rather their relationship.
This change of story creates an additional reality, which gives way to further realities (Diane watching, vivid, as her lover kisses another woman could be her interpretation of something less confrontational. The reality could've been them talking, and her reading into that by imagining them kissing). This conflict strikes us truer than, in some ways, the traditional: ''hero' pursues their dream, and succeeds' narrative.

Fig. 3

However, there are moments wherein the plot breaks all rules of reality, and exposes surrealist hallucinations of tiny people, Diane's 'mentors' screaming in horror, and smoke erupting from her bed.

Fig. 4

David Lynch plays with these realities, in a medium that's concerned with storytelling. Often he brings attention to the hyper-realist/fake moments, that, otherwise, we wouldn't question in a cinematic context. The singer who evokes emotion in the main characters, and ourselves, before we realise she isn't singing at all. The moments when the camera rolls back and reveals the film set. All this shows the audience how these moments are orchestrated in film. Similarly, the main character is orchestrating these realities in her head, as the 'unreliable narrator'.

Fig. 5

2) Unreliable Narrator

We are unsure as to the main character; her real name and her real role alludes us. Whether it's all true, (and it's the narrative that's unreliable), or none of it is... remains ambiguous for the entirety of the film. 'Mulholland Dr.' draws from more 'post-modern' attitudes of storytelling, wherein our means of finding the 'truth' (through the main character, where are main source of information comes from),  is warped, and sceptical. 

3) Non-linear narrative
With multiple stories being told across the film, it's hard to know when one story has supposedly started, and where another begins. Let alone if its a chronological time-line of some sort.
4) Fragmented | Schizoid
There are 3 parts of the film, each one baring a different reality, with different characters and dynamics. Each of these parts give way to further realities, wherein different characters appear to read into situations, and see illogical scenarios without battering an eyelid.
There's also a fragmentation between the film of 'Mulholland Dr.' as a whole, and the reality we are watching it in. David Lynch reminds us time, and time again that we're watching a film, breaking the immersion to clever effect.
This 'schizoid' form of storytelling links to 'Post-modernism's' belief that mass confusion is a greater depiction of sorts of 'true' reality, than the modernist way of seeing events as being symbolic/wielding 'truths', that we-as humans- can figure out if we try hard enough.
5) Pastiche
There are constant references to other film genres, and expectations we- as the audience- have, when watching a film. Hollywood culture, and the expectation of a 'fairy-tale', 'glittering' future is used to full effect at the beginning. Diane's memory loss draws from existing texts, as amnesia is a well-used literacy device, there to create conflict in a story.
Lynch, again, attempts to remind us of our role in the film as interpreters, and individual's seeking entertainment. 
Then, suddenly, we're thrown into a crime mystery- wherein Diane has Spanish roots, and the presence of the film set is used to full effect. The reference to Rebekah del Rio's performance of 'Llorando', which in itself is a remake of Roy Orbison's song 'Crying', intertexualises Spanish elements, of an existing text, into the film.

References
Websites
Beckwith, Francis J. (1993), 'Media Echoes: Statement DA241 Philosophical Problems with Moral Relativism', [Online]. Available at: http://www.therazor.org/oldroot/Fall02/cri-1.htm [Accessed Date: 07/10/2017]
'Cambridge Dictionary', (2017), 'Pluralism', [Online]. Available at: 
http://dictionary.cambridge.org/dictionary/english/pluralism [Accessed Date: 07/10/2017]
Mastin, Luke (2008), 'Types of Essentialism', [Online]. Available at: http://www.philosophybasics.com/branch_essentialism.html [Accessed Date: 07/10/2017]
'Oxford Dictonaries', (2017), 'Pluralism', [Online]. Available at: https://en.oxforddictionaries.com/definition/pluralism [Accessed Date: 07/10/2017]
'Oxford Reference', (2017), 'Biological Essentialism', [Online]. Available at: http://www.oxfordreference.com/view/10.1093/oi/authority.20110803095507973 [Accessed Date: 07/10/2017]
Pantoja, Antonia; Perry, Wilhelmina; and Blourock, Barbara (1976), "Towards the Development of Theory: Cultural Pluralism Redefined", [Online]. Available at: http://scholarworks.wmich.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1178&context=jssw [Accessed Date: 07/10/2017]
Phillips, Anne (2010), 'What's wrong with essentialism?', [Online]. Available at: http://eprints.lse.ac.uk/30900/1/What%27s%20wrong%20with%20essentialism%20%28LSERO%29.pdf [Accessed Date: 07/10/2017]
Putnam, Mark S. (2005), 'Absolutes and Ethical Relativism in the Workplace', [Online]. Available at: http://www.globalethicsuniversity.com/articles/absolutesandrelativisim.htm [Accessed Date: 07/10/2017]

Videos
Barta, Damon (No Date), 'Cultural Essentialism: Definition & Examples', [Online]. Available at: http://study.com/academy/lesson/cultural-essentialism-definition-examples.html [Accessed Date: 07/10/2017]

Illustrations 

Fig. 1 'Mulholland Drive DVD Cover', (2001),  [Online Image]. Available at: https://images-na.ssl-images-amazon.com/images/M/MV5BNWM2MDZmMDgtYjViOS00YzBmLWE4YzctMDMyYTQ2YTc4MmVkXkEyXkFqcGdeQXVyNDk3NzU2MTQ@._V1_SY1000_CR0,0,666,1000_AL_.jpg [Accessed Date: 07/10/2017]
Fig. 2  'Mulholland Drive', (2001), [Film Still]. Available at: https://allswellthatreadswell.files.wordpress.com/2013/02/mulholland-dr-hddvd-dts-blind-mkv-snapshot-mulholland-drive-1338192344.jpg [Accessed Date: 07/10/2017]
Fig. 3 'Mulholland Drive', (2001), [Film Still]. Available at: https://outtherecinema.files.wordpress.com/2015/09/tumblr_lko5oqleim1qaseldo1_1280.png?w=1000&h=563 [Accessed Date: 07/10/2017]
Fig. 4 'MrNineteen88', (2011), 'Mulholland Drive-Ending' [Film Still, 1:55, 2:35, 2:43]. Available at: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=mzRgkD4l7Xs&t=164s [Accessed Date: 07/10/2017]
and
'Mulholland Drive', (2001), [Film Still]. Available at: http://pixel.nymag.com/imgs/daily/vulture/2014/10/31/31-bonnie-aarons.w1200.h630.jpg [Accessed Date: 07/10/2017]

Fig. 5 'ChrisBenoit4evar', (2014), 'Mulholland Drive "This is the girl"', [Film Still, 0:54]. Available at: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=NSp2uCt4CgE [Accessed Date: 07/10/2017]