Perspectives Lecture [2] 'Reflections On Transparency'
Definitions
Ahistorical- Existing outside of a historical context or perspective. Irreducible- The most simplified version of something.
Objective- A person or an opinion that's unmarred by individual feelings, and opinions, when referring to facts.
Transparent- When something is see-through and clear.
Universal- Relating to all people or things across the world.
Definitive- A conclusive fact that's fully agreed upon.
Fixed- Static and unchangeable.
Structuralism- A methodology of thought, related to 'Modernism', that attempts to find the universal/ultimate "structure of human thought processes" (Briggs and Meyer, 2009), which exists outside of historical context.
French anthropologist, Claude Levi-Strauss, is considered the father of 'Structuralism'- proposing the importance of considering the "underling patterns of human thought" (Briggs and Meyer, 2009) in anthropological investigations. His book 'Structuralism and Ecology' (1972), states this was something at the heart of all cultures, and was what influenced such things that came after (kinship, myth, language etc.), that may seem individual in each respective culture, but in reality comes from universal, underlying thought processes, that "exist in the form of binary oppositions" (Winthrop, 1991).
One example of 'Structuralism' in practice would be the extreme conclusion of the building complex, 'Pruitt-Igoe' (1954), in St. Louis, Missouri. Built at the forefront of "postwar urban decline" (Freidrich, 2011) and at a time when residents fought back against being passive victims of larger corporations/powers... the building was driven by optimistic and hope in light of the war.
Using structuralist ideas around universal, minimalist design- to allow anyone to live there.
20 years later, the buildings were demolished, being "unfit for habitation" (Freidrich, 2011).
Prior to it's creation, "public housing was used as a tool of racial segregation and as a justification for the clearance of poor and working-class neighborhoods" (Freidrich, 2011). There was a discord between the creators concepts, and the people who lived there. As the ideologies were left unacknowledged, the buildings became instead, a hub for violence, crime and drugs.
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Post-Structuralism- A critique of 'Structuralism', and its "pretensions to scientific objectivity and comprehensiveness" (Baldick, 1991).
As 'structuralism' attempts to reach 'transparency' and the universal structures of human behaviour... 'Post-structuralism' see's this as an attempt to control meaning also.
The scientist isn't transparent. Often he's seeing these theories through his own experiences/beliefs, which in turn can cloud the purity of meaning. Contradicting the original intentions.
An example of this would be Sigmund Freud, whose own theories often relate to sex. This link is thought by some as the 'scientist' influencing the theories with his own experiences. They suggest because Freud lives in a 'sexually repressed' era, the very place he was critiquing, he couldn't see it objectively from a distance. Theorists like Susan Sontag argue "against Freud and for "erotics of art" (Ciabattari, 2014), seeking a form of interpretation that doesn't obsess over content, but rather aims to "show how it is what it is, even that it is what it is, rather than to show what it means" (Sontag, 1966).
She observes how "The old style of interpretation was insistent, but respectful; it erected another meaning on top of the literal one", while "the modern style of interpretation excavates, and as it excavates, destroys; it digs “behind” the text, to find a sub-text which is the true one", (Sontag, 1966). Therefore her extension to this claims that "interpretation is not (as most people assume) an absolute value, a gesture of mind situated in some timeless realm of capabilities. Interpretation must itself be evaluated, within a historical view of human consciousness." (Sontag, 1966).
Post-structuralism see's true objectivity as impossible... and thus, how we should be aware of the constant stream of interpretation that can change the meaning of the text. From author's interpretation of something, to another in the readers, in their own respective time period/context.
Roland Barthes' 'The Death of the Author' sees interpretation as happening solely in the readers mind, and away from the authors original intentions (and a presence as "a socially and historically constituted subject" (Keep, 2000), rather than as a person). In one way or another, the text is distorted in interpretation. And interpretation is the only way to find meaning in text. Post-structuralism essentially acknowledges this, and asks us to constantly reflect back upon each interpretation- so we're aware that it's in some way altered in our minds already.
The Unreliable Narrator- A term coined by Wayne C. Booth in his work 'The Rhetoric of Fiction' (1961), when discussing circumstances in books/literature when our main source of insight into the world/plot is distorted by the character telling it. This could be down to mental instability, delusion or an intention to lie.
An example of 'Unreliable Narrator' in literature would be Alex in 'Clockwork Orange' who downplays or attempts to excuse his ultra-violence. He murders and rapes, and yet - despite what we expect- it's hard to discern what other characters think of his actions. Only through other characters actions (when P.R. Deltoid spits in his face) do we get insight into their internal views of Alex.
Five ways 'Inception' is considered 'Post-modern':
1- Hyper-reality
The concept of alternative realities- one that allow people to "play god" ('Inception', 2010)- plays a major part in the film, and can, to some extent, be seen as a 'desirable' thing. So much so, characters like Mal wish not to leave the dream-world and their creations at 'Limbo', and student Ariadne can't stay away from the job offer, as the reality becomes a pale shadow in comparison to the dream reality. This acknowledgement of hyper-reality ultimately develops into the idea that true reality is the final goal, and - in the end- the only thing we can truly seek out.
Cobb seems to realise the importance of real, human bodies and people when he apparently 'wakes up' from the job, and this appreciation continues when talking to his professor. His kids finally turning their faces show how he's making new memories, something that he couldn't apparently do in the dream world.
In relation to post-modernism, this resembles the acknowledgment the movement has of subjective realities, and dismissing modernism's belief in ultimate truths.
2- Loose Meaning
The ending and ultimate meaning of the story is incredibly vague, as no definitive conclusion is made to whether Cobb's is still in a dream or not. While we could argue it's because it's not really important whether you dream or not, or where you'll go but rather who you're with etc...the ending is still subject to the interpretation of the viewer, whose relied upon to connect the dots.
Something that arguably has post-modern ideas around avoiding true meaning, and instead fragmenting everything down as chaos is closer to 'reality' than singular truths.
This 'acknowledgement' of the viewer, and the author's interpretations, is a form of 'self-awareness', and also shows a distancing from singular linear narrative. A post-modernist evolution in story-telling.
3- Mainstream Cultural Beliefs Challenged: Morality
'Morality' as a personally defined thing, that's thought of differently 'from person to person'.
While Cobb and his team are in fact criminals, stealing from people's dreams, their idea of morality
see's this as necessary/justified for benefiting the world from people like Robert Fischer, whose company's widespread control of energy resources who prevent other companies having control (to create a 'healthy' alternative to a singular 'monopoly').
Additionally morality becomes dependent upon each individuals idea of 'quality of life'.
Saito see's it beneficial to his own company, while Cobb see's the job as an opportunity to "go home" ('Inception', 2010)- in one sense of the word: to his children in America, and the other: a past reality wherein his wife is still alive, and existing in reality.
On a 'deeper level', the value of 'reality' is also initially distorted in light of it's hyper-realist successor. Things like legality become unimportant things in the context of 'life', and the meaning of 'reality'. To those few people aware of this technology, reality becomes a 'pale shadow' in comparison to the dream-reality, wherein they've more control over things.
These ideas around flexible morality work within a 'Post-modern' context, where people aren't seeking meaning as a singular, definite truth... but rather leaving "meaningless confusion of contemporary existence" (Answers.com, No Date), unchanged, as the most 'truthful' depiction of reality available.
4- Intertextuality
With existing scientific concepts like the 'Penrose Stairs' making an appearance (note fig. 4), and responding theories around the possible real-world references the film has to the creators (Hill, 2015), intertextualised work show's the film's 'self-awareness' of itself as a medium. A form of 'storytelling' and 'world-making' that similarly (to 'Inception's' plot), is attempting to get into the heads of the audience and relate on a subconscious level. One we may not even be truly aware of.
Furthermore, after 'Inception's' release, the dramatic uncertainty of dreaming has since become a recurring motif in many media texts made thereafter.
It's cinematic form arguably allows for easier intextualisation, as an ongoing, repetitive joke in media texts across all platforms ('The Office' (2010) season premiere: "Saw Inception, or at least dreamt I did". Rick and Morty (2013): 'Lawnmower Dog', wherein the protagonists enter Mr. Goldenfold's dreams to 'incept' the idea of giving Morty A's in math. 'X-Men: Days of Future Past' (2014), when Ellen Page who'd played the 'Architect', teaches architecture in class in the corrected future etc.).
5- Relative Truths of the Individual
The fluidity of reality (explored in 'postmodern' terms), is explored in great deal in 'inception'. Particularly, the impossibility of discerning "an externally situated reality" (Hill, 2015) from the "internal self-story" (Hill, 2015). The latter of which also grounds 'Inception's' story, as the dream/external actions of the characters, are undertaken, so to solve psychological/internal problems (letting go of loved ones, changing ones mind etc.). The conclusion of their actions differ from character to character also. These ideas acknowledge the concept that "reality is not simply mirrored in human understanding of it, but rather, is constructed as the mind tries to understand its own particular and personal reality", ('Public Broadcasting Service’, No Date).
Postmodernism is therefore (similarly) "highly skeptical of explanations which claim to be valid for all groups, cultures, traditions, or races, and instead focuses on the relative truths of each person"('Public Broadcasting Service’, No Date), wherein interpretation is everything, and reality is created from these individual interpretations.
References
Books
Barthes, Roland (1967), 'The Death of the Author'. In: American Journal Aspen, no.5-6. America. Phyllis Johnson.
Sontag, Susan (1966), ‘Against Interpretation’, United States of America: Farrar, Straus and Giroux.
Websites
The scientist isn't transparent. Often he's seeing these theories through his own experiences/beliefs, which in turn can cloud the purity of meaning. Contradicting the original intentions.
An example of this would be Sigmund Freud, whose own theories often relate to sex. This link is thought by some as the 'scientist' influencing the theories with his own experiences. They suggest because Freud lives in a 'sexually repressed' era, the very place he was critiquing, he couldn't see it objectively from a distance. Theorists like Susan Sontag argue "against Freud and for "erotics of art" (Ciabattari, 2014), seeking a form of interpretation that doesn't obsess over content, but rather aims to "show how it is what it is, even that it is what it is, rather than to show what it means" (Sontag, 1966).
She observes how "The old style of interpretation was insistent, but respectful; it erected another meaning on top of the literal one", while "the modern style of interpretation excavates, and as it excavates, destroys; it digs “behind” the text, to find a sub-text which is the true one", (Sontag, 1966). Therefore her extension to this claims that "interpretation is not (as most people assume) an absolute value, a gesture of mind situated in some timeless realm of capabilities. Interpretation must itself be evaluated, within a historical view of human consciousness." (Sontag, 1966).
Post-structuralism see's true objectivity as impossible... and thus, how we should be aware of the constant stream of interpretation that can change the meaning of the text. From author's interpretation of something, to another in the readers, in their own respective time period/context.
Roland Barthes' 'The Death of the Author' sees interpretation as happening solely in the readers mind, and away from the authors original intentions (and a presence as "a socially and historically constituted subject" (Keep, 2000), rather than as a person). In one way or another, the text is distorted in interpretation. And interpretation is the only way to find meaning in text. Post-structuralism essentially acknowledges this, and asks us to constantly reflect back upon each interpretation- so we're aware that it's in some way altered in our minds already.
The Unreliable Narrator- A term coined by Wayne C. Booth in his work 'The Rhetoric of Fiction' (1961), when discussing circumstances in books/literature when our main source of insight into the world/plot is distorted by the character telling it. This could be down to mental instability, delusion or an intention to lie.
An example of 'Unreliable Narrator' in literature would be Alex in 'Clockwork Orange' who downplays or attempts to excuse his ultra-violence. He murders and rapes, and yet - despite what we expect- it's hard to discern what other characters think of his actions. Only through other characters actions (when P.R. Deltoid spits in his face) do we get insight into their internal views of Alex.
Inception
 |
| Fig. 3 |
1- Hyper-reality
The concept of alternative realities- one that allow people to "play god" ('Inception', 2010)- plays a major part in the film, and can, to some extent, be seen as a 'desirable' thing. So much so, characters like Mal wish not to leave the dream-world and their creations at 'Limbo', and student Ariadne can't stay away from the job offer, as the reality becomes a pale shadow in comparison to the dream reality. This acknowledgement of hyper-reality ultimately develops into the idea that true reality is the final goal, and - in the end- the only thing we can truly seek out.
Cobb seems to realise the importance of real, human bodies and people when he apparently 'wakes up' from the job, and this appreciation continues when talking to his professor. His kids finally turning their faces show how he's making new memories, something that he couldn't apparently do in the dream world.
In relation to post-modernism, this resembles the acknowledgment the movement has of subjective realities, and dismissing modernism's belief in ultimate truths.
2- Loose Meaning
The ending and ultimate meaning of the story is incredibly vague, as no definitive conclusion is made to whether Cobb's is still in a dream or not. While we could argue it's because it's not really important whether you dream or not, or where you'll go but rather who you're with etc...the ending is still subject to the interpretation of the viewer, whose relied upon to connect the dots.
Something that arguably has post-modern ideas around avoiding true meaning, and instead fragmenting everything down as chaos is closer to 'reality' than singular truths.
This 'acknowledgement' of the viewer, and the author's interpretations, is a form of 'self-awareness', and also shows a distancing from singular linear narrative. A post-modernist evolution in story-telling.
3- Mainstream Cultural Beliefs Challenged: Morality
'Morality' as a personally defined thing, that's thought of differently 'from person to person'.
While Cobb and his team are in fact criminals, stealing from people's dreams, their idea of morality
see's this as necessary/justified for benefiting the world from people like Robert Fischer, whose company's widespread control of energy resources who prevent other companies having control (to create a 'healthy' alternative to a singular 'monopoly').
Additionally morality becomes dependent upon each individuals idea of 'quality of life'.
Saito see's it beneficial to his own company, while Cobb see's the job as an opportunity to "go home" ('Inception', 2010)- in one sense of the word: to his children in America, and the other: a past reality wherein his wife is still alive, and existing in reality.
On a 'deeper level', the value of 'reality' is also initially distorted in light of it's hyper-realist successor. Things like legality become unimportant things in the context of 'life', and the meaning of 'reality'. To those few people aware of this technology, reality becomes a 'pale shadow' in comparison to the dream-reality, wherein they've more control over things.
These ideas around flexible morality work within a 'Post-modern' context, where people aren't seeking meaning as a singular, definite truth... but rather leaving "meaningless confusion of contemporary existence" (Answers.com, No Date), unchanged, as the most 'truthful' depiction of reality available.
4- Intertextuality
With existing scientific concepts like the 'Penrose Stairs' making an appearance (note fig. 4), and responding theories around the possible real-world references the film has to the creators (Hill, 2015), intertextualised work show's the film's 'self-awareness' of itself as a medium. A form of 'storytelling' and 'world-making' that similarly (to 'Inception's' plot), is attempting to get into the heads of the audience and relate on a subconscious level. One we may not even be truly aware of.
 |
| Fig. 4 |
It's cinematic form arguably allows for easier intextualisation, as an ongoing, repetitive joke in media texts across all platforms ('The Office' (2010) season premiere: "Saw Inception, or at least dreamt I did". Rick and Morty (2013): 'Lawnmower Dog', wherein the protagonists enter Mr. Goldenfold's dreams to 'incept' the idea of giving Morty A's in math. 'X-Men: Days of Future Past' (2014), when Ellen Page who'd played the 'Architect', teaches architecture in class in the corrected future etc.).
5- Relative Truths of the Individual
The fluidity of reality (explored in 'postmodern' terms), is explored in great deal in 'inception'. Particularly, the impossibility of discerning "an externally situated reality" (Hill, 2015) from the "internal self-story" (Hill, 2015). The latter of which also grounds 'Inception's' story, as the dream/external actions of the characters, are undertaken, so to solve psychological/internal problems (letting go of loved ones, changing ones mind etc.). The conclusion of their actions differ from character to character also. These ideas acknowledge the concept that "reality is not simply mirrored in human understanding of it, but rather, is constructed as the mind tries to understand its own particular and personal reality", ('Public Broadcasting Service’, No Date).
Postmodernism is therefore (similarly) "highly skeptical of explanations which claim to be valid for all groups, cultures, traditions, or races, and instead focuses on the relative truths of each person"('Public Broadcasting Service’, No Date), wherein interpretation is everything, and reality is created from these individual interpretations.
References
Books
Barthes, Roland (1967), 'The Death of the Author'. In: American Journal Aspen, no.5-6. America. Phyllis Johnson.
Sontag, Susan (1966), ‘Against Interpretation’, United States of America: Farrar, Straus and Giroux.
Websites
'Answers.com', (No Date), 'Postmodernism Definition', [Online]. Available at: http://www.answers.com/topic/postmodernism [Accessed Date: 29/09/2017]
Briggs, Rachel and Meyer, Janelle (2009), 'Structuralism', [Online]. Available at: http://anthropology.ua.edu/cultures/cultures.php?culture=structuralism [Accessed Date: 29/09/2017]
'Chalmers University of Technology' (2010), 'Post-structuralism: A Very Short Introduction, C.Belsey', [Online]. Available at: http://www.math.chalmers.se/~ulfp/Review/poststructure.pdf [Accessed Date: 29/09/2017]
Ciabattari, Jane (2014), 'Does Sigmund Freud still matter?', [Online]. Available at: http://www.bbc.co.uk/culture/story/20140421-does-freud-still-matter [Accessed Date: 29/09/2017]
Freidrich, Chad (2011), 'The Priuitt-Igoe Myth | Urban History', [Online] Available at: http://www.pruitt-igoe.com/urban-history/ [Accessed Date: 29/09/2017]
Hill, Naamah (2015), 'Inception as a Post Modern Text', [Online]. Available at: https://www.slideshare.net/naamah/inception-as-a-post-modern-text [Accessed Date: 29/09/2017]
'IMDb' (2017), 'Inception (2010) Connections', [Online]. Available at: http://www.imdb.com/title/tt1375666/movieconnections [Accessed Date: 29/09/2017]
'Karanovic.org', (2014), 'Inception and Postmodernism', [Online]. Available at: http://www.karanovic.org/courses/mca008/archives/1675 [Accessed Date: 29/09/2017]
Keep, Christopher (2000), 'Death of the Author', [Online]. Available at: http://www2.iath.virginia.edu/elab/hfl0226.html [Accessed Date: 29/09/2017]
Keep, Christopher (2000), 'Death of the Author', [Online]. Available at: http://www2.iath.virginia.edu/elab/hfl0226.html [Accessed Date: 29/09/2017]
Marshall, Colin (2015), 'Pruitt-Igoe: The troubled high-rise that came to define urban America- a history of cities in 50 buildings, day 21', [Online]. Available at: https://www.theguardian.com/cities/2015/apr/22/pruitt-igoe-high-rise-urban-america-history-cities [Accessed Date: 29/09/2017]
Morse, Julia (2005), 'Wayne Booth, Professor Emeritus of English, 1921-2005', [Online]. Available at: http://www-news.uchicago.edu/releases/05/051011.booth.shtml [Accessed Date: 29/09/2017]
'New World Encylopedia Writers and Editors', (2015), 'Post-structuralism', [Online]. Available at: http://www.newworldencyclopedia.org/entry/Post-structuralism [Accessed Date: 29/09/2017]
Now Novel Team, (2017), 'What is an unreliable narrator?', [Online]. Available at: https://www.nownovel.com/blog/unreliable-narrator/ [Accessed Date: 29/09/2017]
'Oxford University Press', (2008), 'Post-structuralism', [Online]. Available at: http://oxfordindex.oup.com/view/10.1093/acref/9780199208272.013.0906 [Accessed Date: 29/09/2017]Public Broadcasting Service’, (No Date), ‘Postmodernism’, [Online]. Available at:https://www.pbs.org/faithandreason/gengloss/postm-body.html [Accessed Date: 29/09/2017
Robinson, Paul (1993), 'Freud and his Critics', [Online]. Available at: http://publishing.cdlib.org/ucpressebooks/view?docId=ft4w10062x&chunk.id=introduction&brand=eschol [Accessed Date: 29/09/2017]
Shen, Dan (2011), 'Unreliability', [Online]. Available at: http://wikis.sub.uni-hamburg.de/lhn/index.php/Unreliability [Accessed Date: 29/09/2017]
Shmoop Editorial Team. (2008), 'A Clockwork Orange Narrator Point of View', [Online]. Available at: https://www.shmoop.com/clockwork-orange/narrator-point-of-view.html# [Accessed Date: 29/09/2017]
Sygrove, Laura (2014), 'Inception: A Postmodern Text', [Online]. Available at: http://laurasygrovelcpomo14.blogspot.co.uk/2014/01/inception-intertextuality.html [Accessed Date: 29/09/2017]
Sygrove, Laura (2014), 'Inception: A Postmodern Text', [Online]. Available at: http://laurasygrovelcpomo14.blogspot.co.uk/2014/01/inception-intertextuality.html [Accessed Date: 29/09/2017]
'The Editors of Encyclopaedia Britannia' (1998-2014), 'Structuralism', [Online]. Available at: https://www.britannica.com/science/structuralism-anthropology [Accessed Date: 29/09/2017]
Illustrations
Fig. 1 'Pruitt-Igoe', (Uploaded 2010- Original date unknown), [Photograph]. Available at: http://www.pruitt-igoe.com/YAMA/wp-content/uploads/2010/09/P-I99.jpg [Accessed Date: 29/09/2017]
Fig. 2 'Death of Modern Architecture', (1972), [Photograph]. Available at: http://i.imgur.com/xXM98yz.jpg [Accessed Date: 29/09/2017]
Illustrations
Fig. 1 'Pruitt-Igoe', (Uploaded 2010- Original date unknown), [Photograph]. Available at: http://www.pruitt-igoe.com/YAMA/wp-content/uploads/2010/09/P-I99.jpg [Accessed Date: 29/09/2017]
Fig. 2 'Death of Modern Architecture', (1972), [Photograph]. Available at: http://i.imgur.com/xXM98yz.jpg [Accessed Date: 29/09/2017]
Fig. 3 'Inception DVD Cover', (2010), [Online Image]. Available at: http://cdn.collider.com/wp-content/uploads/Inception-movie-poster-7.jpg [Accessed Date: 29/09/2017]
Fig. 4 'Inception', (2010), [Film Still]. Available at: http://www.tylershores.com/wp-content/uploads/2011/06/Penrose-Steps-1.png [Accessed Date: 29/09/2017]
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